Wallace Stevens Essays - American People Of German Descent

Wallace Stevens Samantha Erck Examination Paper Wallace Stevens: Inside the Gray Flannel Suit Pragmatists, wearing square hets, Think, in square rooms, Taking a gander at the floor, Taking a gander at the roof, They restrict themselves To right-calculated triangles. In the event that they attempted rhomboids, Cones, waving lines, circles As, the circle of the half moon- Pragmatists would wear sombreros. Six Significant Landscapes (Collected Poems p.73-75) Wallace Stevens is considerd one of the most significant writers of this century. His style was special and diffrent. The manner in which he utilized words to optain the truth of something that can't be contacted, is an astounding and brilant ability. Stevens was an exceptionally effective lawer and businessperson just as an extraordinary peot. We for the most part consider peots and specialists as starving craftsmen. Stevens was a very accommplished lawer was as yet ready to compose beautifull peotry. His peoms useually contadicted his lifestile, yet that may be were he got his insperation. He had a spouse, family, and profession, he had a very queit way of life. In any case, his peotry is noisy and theoretical. Wallace Stevens was conceived in 1879, in Reading, Pennsylvania. As a youngster, he began at parochial schools, and later joined up with government funded schools. Wallace's folks urge him to peruse, which helped him become a superior writter. In school, Wallace was a phenomenal understudy. After secondary school, he proceeded with his instruction at Harvard University, where he got associated with two Harvard papers, first the Advocate and afterward the Harvard Monthly. In the wake of leaving school, he moved to New York City. He filled in as a columnist, and thought about an artistic vocation. Yet, his dad urged Stevens to turn into a progressively down to earth vocation in the law business. He filled in as a legal counselor for a couple of years in New York. He worked at various firms and afterward at the Fidelity and Deposit Company. He at last settled at the Hartford Accident and Indemnity Company, where he turned into the VP for an amazing remainder. It resembled Stevens drove two separate lives, one of an agent and one as a writer. Stevens himself once said in a New York Times talk with, I like to believe I'm only a man, not an artist low maintenance, businessperson the rest. This is a lucky thing, taking into account how rude the ravens are. I don't separate my life, simply continue living. A significant number of Stevens' fans are frequently amazed when they learn of Stevens' life as a representative. As referenced before, Wallace Stevens' work mirrored his life in numerous ways. His girl, Holly, and his significant other, Elsie were the two motivations for his sonnets. The individuals, spots, and things in Stevens' private life all impacted his verse. He expounded on Florida, the Orient, his family, life, demise, religion, nature, and numerous different subjects. His verse had numerous special subjects also. He expounded on agnosticism, mysticism, creative mind, dreams, God, and reality. In the course of his life, Stevens distributed huge numbers of his sonnets, his most notable are Harmonium, The Man With the Blue Guitar, Transport to Summer, and The Auroras of Autumn. He additionally composed exposition, articles, and plays. Stevens peoms are perplexing. So as to peruse the vast majority of his verse, it's nessassary to have a word reference close by. Stevens has a colossal jargon and he effectively utilizes it in his verse. Many have called his work profound becauses of the philosophical parts of his sonnets. One sonnet that I like, Contrary Thesis (II) was hard for me to peruse from the outset. A selection from it is a genuine case of Stevens' diffrent utilization of language: ...He strolled with his year-old kid on his shoulder. The sun shone and the canine yelped and the child dozed. The leaves, even the insect, the green grasshopper. He needed and searched for a last asylum, From the lofty hints of winter What's more, the saints ? la mode. He strolled toward A theoretical, of which the sun, the canine, the kid Were forms. Cold was cooling the wide-moving swans. The leaves were falling like notes from a piano... - Contrary Thesis (II)(Collected Poems p.207) This peom is discussing a man searching for an asylum before winter comes. It is by all accounts looking at getting old, the manner in which the seasons change from harvest time to winter. The man who is searching for asylum is by all accounts attempting to discover where his life is taking

Who Cares About Writing Anyway Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Who Cares About Writing Anyway - Essay Example is about oneself, including the individual and the aggregate inside the â€Å"I.† I might want to believe that individuals, in any case, should contemplate what, why, and how they compose, in light of the fact that composing renders huge force that ought not be weakened by continually expounding on close to home and shallow struggles alone. The right to speak freely of discourse is an obligation that is too essential to possibly be squandered on void announcements that don't, at any rate in some cases, mean something more to individuals as people and as networks. This paper contends that individuals should think about composition, since whoever composes well can re-tell the past, acknowledge and influence the present, and re-characterize what's to come. History produces power; whoever composes and re-tells it, possesses it and what's to come. Benjamin Franklin has composed his personal history that some applause, some scrutinize, or some simply feel nothing for. Be that as it may, he knows the intensity of the composed word. The composed word can be the reason for the said word as well. The composed word can bring importance and exercises that can affect the manner in which individuals think and act. Lawrence subverts Franklins virtues in â€Å"On Ben Franklins Virtues,† however he does as such through composing as well. He needs to report his own perspectives, since he realizes that composing will re-tell the past the manner in which he needs it to be told. He needs the past to not be deciphered and spread by a white man alone. He needs his own perspective as a â€Å"dark forest† (367). I need to pressure that composing comprises of communicating how individuals need others to consider themselves to be people and as a feature of their kin/s as well. For sure, each race has its people. Lawrence is an individual and Franklin is as well; they have a place with their â€Å"groups,† whether these gatherings meet or not. They can conflict in their contentions of ethics and expound on it, since that is a piece of forming what their identity is. Simultaneously, they need to impact others, regardless of whether they are in the equivalent racial network or not, with the goal that they can understand their past as

Why Do People Blame the Victim

Why Do People Blame the Victim Theories Social Psychology Print Why Do People Blame the Victim? By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on November 02, 2017 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on February 17, 2020 Alberto Ruggieri / Illustration Works / Getty Images More in Theories Social Psychology Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology Blaming the victim is a phenomenon in which victims of crimes or tragedies are held accountable for what happened to them.  Victim blaming allows people to believe that such events could never happen to them. Blaming the victim is known to occur in rape and sexual assault cases, where the victim of the crime is often accused of inviting the attack due to her clothing or behavior. A Well-Known Example of Blaming the Victim In 2003, a 14-year-old girl named Elizabeth Smart was kidnapped from her bedroom in Salt Lake City, Utah at knifepoint. She spent the next nine months held captive by her abductors, Brian Mitchell and Wanda Barzee. After her rescue and details of her time in captivity become public, many people wondered why she hadnt tried to escape or reveal her identity. These types of questions, sadly, are not uncommon after people hear about a terrible event. Why, after such a horrible crime, do so many people seem to blame the victim for their circumstances? When news reports surfaced of a woman being raped, many questions center on what the victims were wearing or doing that might have provoked the attack. When people are mugged, others frequently wonder what victims were doing out so late at night or why they did not take extra measures to protect themselves from the crime. Why Humans Have a Tendency to Victim-Blame So what is behind this tendency to blame the victim? Our Attributions Contribute One psychological phenomenon that contributes to this tendency to lay the blame on the victim is known as the fundamental attribution error. This bias involves attributing other people’s behaviors to internal, personal characteristics while ignoring external forces and variables that also might have played a role.?? When a classmate flunks a test, for example, you probably attribute their behavior to a variety of internal characteristics. You might believe that the other student didn’t study hard enough, isn’t smart enough, or is just plain lazy. If you were to fail a test, however, what would you blame your poor performance on? In many cases, people blame their failings on external sources. You might protest that the room was too hot and you couldn’t concentrate, or that the teacher didn’t grade the test fairly or included too many trick questions. Hindsight Is 20/20 Another issue that contributes to our tendency to blame the victim is known as the hindsight bias. When we look at an event that happened in the past, we have a tendency to believe that we should have been able to see the signs and predict the outcome.??This hindsight makes it seem like the victims of a crime, accident, or another form of misfortune should have been able to predict and prevent whatever problem might have befallen them. And this isn’t just something that happens when we are looking at things such as rape or assault. When someone becomes ill, people often seek to blame past behaviors for a person’s current state of health. Cancer? They should have stopped smoking. Heart disease? Well, I guess they should have exercised more. Food poisoning? Should have known better than to have eaten at that new restaurant. Such cases of blame seem to suggest that people should have simply known or expected such things to happen given their behavior, while in truth there was no way to predict the outcome. We Like to Believe Life Is Fair When It Isnt Our tendency to blame the victim also stems in part from our need to believe that the world is a fair and just place. When something bad happens to another person, we often believe that they must have done something to deserve such a fate. Social psychologists refer to this tendency as the just-world phenomenon.?? Why do we feel this need to believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve? Because if we think that the world is not fair, then it becomes more apparent that anyone can fall victim to tragedy. Yes, even you, your friends, your family, and your other loved ones. No matter how cautious and conscientious  you might be, bad things can and do happen to good people. But by believing that the world is fair, by believing that people deserve what they get, and by blaming the victim, people are able to protect their illusion that such terrible things could never happen to them. A Word From Verywell But bad things can and probably will happen to you at some point in your life. So the next time you find yourself wondering what someone else did to bring on their misfortune, take a moment to consider the psychological attributions and biases that affect your judgment. Rather than blame the victim, try putting yourself in that person’s shoes and perhaps try a little empathy instead.

Biography of Jesse Owens 4 Time Olympic Gold Medalist

During the 1930s, the Great Depression, Jim Crow Era laws, and de facto segregation kept African-Americans in the United States fighting for equality. In Eastern Europe, the Jewish Holocaust was well underway with German ruler Adolf Hitler spearheading a Nazi Regime.   In 1936, the Summer Olympics were to be played in Germany. Hitler saw this as an opportunity to show the inferiority of non-Aryans. Yet, a young track and field star from Cleveland, Ohio had other plans.   His name was Jesse Owens and by the end of the Olympics, hed won four gold medals and refuted Hitlers propaganda.   Accomplishments   First American to win four Olympic gold medalsEarned  an honorary doctorate of athletic arts from Ohio State University in 1973. The University awarded Owens with this doctorate for   his unparalleled skill and ability as an athlete and for his personification of sportsmanship ideals.1976 Presidential Medal of Freedom awarded by President Gerald Ford. Early Life On September 12, 1913, James Cleveland â€Å"Jesse† Owens was born. Owens’ parents, Henry and Mary Emma were sharecroppers who raised 10 children in Oakville, Ala. By 1920s the Owens family was participating in the Great Migration and settled in Cleveland, Ohio. A Track Star Is Born Owenss interest in running track came while attending middle school. His gym teacher, Charles Riley, encouraged Owens to join the track team. Riley taught Owens to train for longer races such as the 100 and 200-yard dashes. Riley continued to work with Owens while he was a high school student. With Riley’s guidance, Owens was able to win every race he entered. By 1932, Owens was preparing to try out for the U.S. Olympic Team and compete at the Summer Games in Los Angeles. Yet at the Midwestern preliminary trials, Owens was defeated in the 100-meter dash, the 200-meter dash as well as the long jump.   Owens did not allow this loss to defeat him. In his senior year of high school, Owens was elected president of the student council and captain of the track team. That year, Owens also placed first in 75 out of 79 races he entered. He also set a new record in the long jump at the interscholastic state finals. His biggest victory came when he won the long jump, setting a world record in the 220-yard dash and also tied a world record in the 100-yard dash. When Owens returned to Cleveland, he was greeted with a victory parade.   Ohio State University: Student and Track Star   Owens chose to attend Ohio State University where he could continue to train and work part-time as a freight elevator operator at the State House. Barred from living in OSU’s dormitory because he was African-American, Owens lives in a boarding house with other African-American students. Owens trained with Larry Snyder who helped the runner perfect his starting time and altering his long-jump style. In May 1935, Owens set world records in the 220-yard dash, the 220-yard low hurdles as well as the long jump at the Big Ten Finals held in Ann Arbor, Mich.   1936 Olympics   In 1936, James â€Å"Jesse† Owens arrived at the Summer Olympics ready to compete. Hosted in Germany at the height of Hitler’s Nazi Regime, the games were filled with controversy. Hitler wanted to use the games for Nazi propaganda and to promote â€Å"Aryan racial superiority.† Owens’ performance at the 1936 Olympics refuted all of Hitler’s propaganda. On August 3, 1936, Owners won the 100m sprint. The following day, he won the gold medal for the long jump. On August 5, Owens won the 200m sprint and finally, on August 9 he was added the 4 x 100m relay team.   Life After the Olympics   Jesse Owens returned home to the United States with not much fanfare. President Franklin D. Roosevelt never met with Owens, a tradition usually afforded Olympic champions. Yet Owens was not surprised by the lackluster celebration saying, When I came back to my native country, after all the stories about Hitler, I couldnt ride in the front of the bus†¦.I had to go to the back door. I couldnt live where I wanted. I wasnt invited to shake hands with Hitler, but I wasnt invited to the White House to shake hands with the president, either. Owens found work racing against cars and horses. He also played for the Harlem Globetrotters. Owens later found success in the field of marketing and spoke at conventions and business meetings. Personal Life and Death   Owens married Minnie Ruth Solomon in 1935. The couple had three daughters. Owens died of lung cancer on March 31, 1980, at his home in Arizona.

Three Important Academic Skills for College Students Essay

One of the reasons why all the new students at universities in the U.S. have to take serial writing classes first is that they have to learn not only writing techniques, but also the way of thinking which enable them to go through studying ahead of them. In his essay The Politics of Remediation, Mike Rose mainly suggests three academic skills that are essential for college students. The importance of these skills can be more clear and profound by comparison with other three essays; Critical Thinking by bell hooks, What Happens When Basic Writers Come to College? by Patricia Bizzell, and The â€Å"Banking† Concept of Education by Paulo Freire. Rose discusses essential academic skills such as acquiring an academic language, critical literacy, and†¦show more content†¦From college-level standard, Lucia was considered as one of the â€Å"poor readers† or â€Å"culturally illiterate† (Rose 144) even though she could fluently speak Spanish. Bizzell discusses t he same topic in her essay in more detailed and generalized form. According to Bizzell, students entering universities usually face â€Å"a clash among dialects† (Bizzell 15), which occurs between their home dialects and Standard English used in academic world. She points out that usually students are forced to abandon their dialects while learning Standard English and claims that there should be a way to bring their home dialect’s world views or culture into academic world. Although Rose does not mention anything about how Lucia’s home dialect (Spanish) would affect her study, but the readers can imagine that her own experience such as struggling with her brother’s mental illness might introduce a new world view into academic culture of psychology in some ways. By mentioning the acquisition of academic language, Rose introduces the issue of cultural conflicts within a student behind the acquisition. Rose also mentions the importance of acquiring critical literacy for college students in his essay. To support his idea, hooks writes more in detail about what critical thinking is. In Rose’s essay, he exemplifies a student called James. James was required to critically analyze theShow MoreRelatedCritical Thinking Skills And Academic Achievements894 Words   |  4 PagesCritical thinking skills are beneficial and little is known about the factors contributing to students developing a disposition to think critically or the effect this disposition has on college students’ academic achievements. More studies need to be carried out on how student are capable of thinking critically and use their critical thinking skills and how to make critical thinking dispositions as it impacts people’s life and is necessary to have this skill when working. One important factor found inRead MoreCollege Is More Challenging Than High School1506 Words   |  7 PagesMany students rea lize college is different from high school; therefore, students must consider and think college as their important and serious education. The academics in college are more challenging than those in high school. Students should consider to set and reach the goals in order to make a progress toward them. To survive in college life, students should not only focus on academic development but also focus on personal development as well. Personal developments such as having time-managementRead MoreFirst Year Students Need Their Fundamental Study Skills to Make the Necessary Adjustments to Achieve Their Successful Journey at University1351 Words   |  6 Pagesterms of study skills, which I bring with me as my scholarship at university, and new skills I must develop. I will use two readings and two lectures as my references to support my thesis and main points. The thesis of my essay is first year students need their fundamental study skills to make the necessary adjustments to achieve th eir successful journey at university. The main points that will be outlined in this essay are the importance of becoming a critical thinker, verbal skill linked with academicRead MoreUnderstanding The Wheaton College Culture And Services1636 Words   |  7 PagesUnderstanding the Wheaton College Culture and Services Wheaton College is a four-year, private liberal arts college with a student body of approximately 1,600. The small size of the campus and student body serve to make Wheaton a close-knit and student-centered community. 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Estimate a Population Parameter Free Essays

Estimation is a procedure by which a numerical value or values are assigned to a population parameter based on the information collected from a sample. The assignment of value(s) to a population parameter based on a value of the corresponding sample statistic is called estimation. In inferential statistics, _ is called the true population mean and p is called the true population proportion. We will write a custom essay sample on Estimate a Population Parameter or any similar topic only for you Order Now There are many other population parameters, such as the median, mode, variance, and standard deviation. The following are a few examples of estimation: an auto company may want to estimate the mean fuel consumption for a particular model of a car; a manager may want to estimate the average time taken by new employees to learn a job; the U. S. Census Bureau may want to find the mean housing expenditure per month incurred by households; and the AWAH (Association of Wives of Alcoholic Husbands) may want to find the proportion (or percentage) of all husbands who are alcoholic. The examples about estimating the mean fuel consumption, estimating the average time taken to learn a job by new employees, and estimating the mean housing expenditure per month incurred by households are illustrations of estimating the true population mean. The example about estimating the proportion (or percentage) of all husbands who are alcoholic is an illustration of estimating the true population proportion, p. This article explains how to assign values to population parameters based on the values of sample statistics. For example, to estimate the mean time taken to learn a certain job by new employees, the manager will take a sample of new employees and record the time taken by each of these employees to learn the job. Using this information, he or she will calculate the sample mean, then, based on the value of he or she will assign certain values to _. As another example, to estimate the mean housing expenditure per month incurred by all households in the United States, the Census Bureau will take a sample of certain households, collect the information on the housing expenditure that each of these households incurs per month, and compute the value of the sample mean, Based on this value of the bureau will then assign values to the population mean, _. The sample statistic used to estimate a population parameter is called an estimator. The estimation procedure involves the following steps. 1. Select a sample. 2. Collect the required information from the members of the sample. 3. Calculate the value of the sample statistic. 4. Assign value(s) to the corresponding population parameter. Remember, the procedures to be mentioned above assume that the sample taken is a simple random sample. If the sample is not a simple random sample, then the procedures to be used to estimate a population mean or proportion become more complex. How to cite Estimate a Population Parameter, Essay examples Estimate a Population Parameter Free Essays Estimation is a procedure by which a numerical value or values are assigned to a population parameter based on the information collected from a sample. The assignment of value(s) to a population parameter based on a value of the corresponding sample statistic is called estimation. In inferential statistics, _ is called the true population mean and p is called the true population proportion. We will write a custom essay sample on Estimate a Population Parameter or any similar topic only for you Order Now There are many other population parameters, such as the median, mode, variance, and standard deviation. The following are a few examples of estimation: an auto company may want to estimate the mean fuel consumption for a particular model of a car; a manager may want to estimate the average time taken by new employees to learn a job; the U. S. Census Bureau may want to find the mean housing expenditure per month incurred by households; and the AWAH (Association of Wives of Alcoholic Husbands) may want to find the proportion (or percentage) of all husbands who are alcoholic. The examples about estimating the mean fuel consumption, estimating the average time taken to learn a job by new employees, and estimating the mean housing expenditure per month incurred by households are illustrations of estimating the true population mean. The example about estimating the proportion (or percentage) of all husbands who are alcoholic is an illustration of estimating the true population proportion, p. This article explains how to assign values to population parameters based on the values of sample statistics. For example, to estimate the mean time taken to learn a certain job by new employees, the manager will take a sample of new employees and record the time taken by each of these employees to learn the job. Using this information, he or she will calculate the sample mean, then, based on the value of he or she will assign certain values to _. As another example, to estimate the mean housing expenditure per month incurred by all households in the United States, the Census Bureau will take a sample of certain households, collect the information on the housing expenditure that each of these households incurs per month, and compute the value of the sample mean, Based on this value of the bureau will then assign values to the population mean, _. The sample statistic used to estimate a population parameter is called an estimator. The estimation procedure involves the following steps. 1. Select a sample. 2. Collect the required information from the members of the sample. 3. Calculate the value of the sample statistic. 4. Assign value(s) to the corresponding population parameter. Remember, the procedures to be mentioned above assume that the sample taken is a simple random sample. If the sample is not a simple random sample, then the procedures to be used to estimate a population mean or proportion become more complex. How to cite Estimate a Population Parameter, Papers

Legal Studies and Law for State and Federal Prison- MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theLegal Studies and Law for State and Federal Prison. Answer: An enormous change has been observed in the philosophy and practice of sentencing and corrections. The vital focus on rehabilitation which existed in first seven decades of 20th Century provided the manner of focusing on justice and fairness in 1970, by which sentences reflected just deserts i.e. people who contradict the law deserve to be punished rather than utilitarian motive (Tonry, 2017). Four main objectives which are generally relating to the sentencing procedure are retribution, rehabilitation, deterrence and incapacitation. Changes in practice and philosophy of sentencing and corrections have a pivotal effect on incarceration rates. The impact of these changes has intended as well as unintended consequences. The development of the prison had an impact on all State and Federal prison. However, it is necessary to assess that the number of individuals in prison and the change over time in these value differs greatly in terms of jurisdiction. The same changed the growth cost of correction have also increased. Two principles which underlay the concept of supporting indeterminate sentencing are environmental and psychological. Environmental explanations emphasis on the wretchedness of internal part and slum environment and assess the reason which is responsible for later criminal behaviour (Maurutto and Hannah-Moffat, 2016). Physiological perceptions believe offenders to be ill and required treatment. Both these perspectives balanced the criminal system and enforced for changing the lawbreakers into law abiders. It has been evaluated by critics that with few isolated exceptions the rehabilitation efforts have examined so far with no appreciable results, and the reason behind same was inadequat e restrictiveness behaviour of judges. Thus, it can be concluded that emphasising risk is necessary for making society safer because through emphasising on risk people can be made aware of the actual situation which is to be faced by them. Punishment and welfare are assessed as recent emergence in the modern western estate of a new form of crime control. As through combining the variants like care, control, assistance and discipline for assessing the personal and social disorder which give rise to criminal activity and rectify them (Monahan and Skeem, 2016). Even the criminal will have to think wisely for making their attempts successful in case the public is aware of their acts and the manner in whey attain to accomplish the same. Through emphasising on risk both the authority as well, the public will make an attempt to control the crime. The same effort has made the procedure of ascertaining sentences in accordance with fair and justice policies. There are different names for community sentence for all the different ways in the criminal justice, in this, the court will punish peoples who commit an offence, but the crime is different from a custodial sentence or capital punishment.Basically, it is an alternative to imprisonment by considering the approach of human rights and human dignity. Sometimes punishments are noticed in terms of repression mainly in harmful offenders. There are many observations for the theory of punishment (Mair, 2016). The several challenging views are presented and promoted by the moral foundation of punishment, and these are a problematic issue for them. If the crime is serious, then the criminal will be punished. However, in the case where convicted person does not intend to do so, then he cannot be treated as a criminal. Community-based sanction is considered to be a soft option because the prisoner is not considered as criminal as he was convicted for the purpose of rehabilitation. The main aim is not to inflict suffer from the offender, but the main aim is to stop the crime which is done by criminal and finding the reason why the offender do that crime again (McIvor, 2016). Further, it is provided mainly to a child or young person as they have an anentire life to live within the society. Thus, despite being treating them as a criminal, they are treated as a patient to motivate them for leading a good life. They are provided with various facilities so they can learn good ethics and skills for their future life. This is also considered to be a soft option because it is generally for a short period with the objective for the benefit of convicted person. On the other hand, in other punishments, the sole objective of jurisdiction is to punish the individual for their offensive act, but in community-base d sanctions, the individual is taught to live in society peacefully with good objectives. This approach is not considered to be true in all cases because sometimes community-based sanctions are so harsh in which conviction is similar or strict in comparison to other punishments. Although there is no substantial evidence to support this view as many forms of community-based sanctions,meant to be juvenile convicts. Recidivism refers to the repetition of criminal actions, including choice of outcomes, which ultimately result in re-arresting, proving of guilt, and re-imprisonments. It is also referred as a percentage of ex-prisoners who are rearrested for a repeating the similar crime. It is a significant problem within most Western jurisdictions because if the criminal is repeating the similar crime than it is no impact of taking them into legal conviction as there is no reduction in crimes. By making analysis the things due to which criminals are repeating the crime will assist jurisdiction in developing better justice system. Study of Sherman and et.al.(2016) shows that the major reason why criminals repeat crime and find themselves back in custody is that it is hard for the offender to get back into their normal life as their past remain with them always. It is because society doesnt easily accept offenders due to their criminal history (Sherman, Neyroud and Neyroud, 2016). Lack of job opport unities, education, and support are the reasons offenders repeat their crime, but the same is not for all the criminals. Examples of people are available who have made their effort and created their own identity in the society even after having a criminal background. Connection with other offenders is also a reason why they commit a crime. As per the issue, there is a fast increase in recidivism because offenders are not able to get the positive impact, their mentality towards recidivism is not changing, and this creates a negative impact on their behaviour they must be taught to reduce it by taking some steps (Tata, 2016). By making a detailed analysis of these aspects,western jurisdictions will get to know about the behaviour of offenders due to which they are committing crime repeatedly; they were able to find many ways to avoid recidivism. With the consideration of this approach, jurisdictions have provided many programs and vocational training such as prison-based education programs; this is an educational programme which is planned to help prisoners to gain skills which they can utilise when they are set free. Although the development of same is dependent of mainly two variants which are: physiological and environmental. Environmental varia nt emphasis on internal assessment of reason due to which the individual regains the criminal behaviour later, and this will help them to reintegrate into society. Physiological variants assess the physical treatment requirement by the criminals. These both variants play a significant role in transforming law breakers into law abiders. Social reintegration programmes have been set for the offenders to help them to integrate into the community which will result in repairing the relationships. Institutional programs are also set up to help criminals to reintegrate into society which includes providing education, job guidance, psychotherapy, and mentoring. Job training is also provided to the offenders so as they can get better job opportunities which will help them to reintegrate into the society (Giles, 2016). These modifications have been done by considering the requirement of a change in justice system due to increasing recidivism. The same kind of attempt is made by rehabilitation centre in which efforts are made to assess the reason behind the crime. The main emphasis is made on young children within these centres as they have to spend a long life in this society. Therefore; an effort is made through these centres to not to treat them as criminal and make them learn to live a good life by providing them learning relating to good ethics. They are also provided information regarding the methods through which they can make their future bright. Efforts are made by this kind of centres to treat them as patients rather than criminal and motivate them to improve rather than re-attempting the crime. Thus, this analysis should be done on a continuing basis to make viable changes in the jurisdiction for developing a better society. References Books and Journals Giles, M., 2016. A study in prison reduces recidivism and welfare dependence: A case study from Western Australia 2005-2010. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, (514), p.1. Mair, G., 2016. What Is the Impact of Probation in Advising Sentencing and Promoting Community Sanctions and Measures?.In Probation (pp. 61-83). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Maurutto, P. and Hannah-Moffat, K., 2016. Aboriginal Knowledge in Specialized Courts: Emerging Practices in Gladue Courts. Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 31(3), pp.451-471. McIvor, G., 2016. What Is the Impact of Community Service?.In Probation (pp. 107-128). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Monahan, J. and Skeem, J.L., 2016. Risk assessment in criminal sentencing. Annual review of clinical psychology, 12, pp.489-513. Sherman, L., Neyroud, P.W. and Neyroud, E., 2016. The Cambridge Crime Harm Index: measuring total harm from crime based on sentencing guidelines. Policing, 10(3), pp.171-183. Tata, C., 2016. How can prison sentencing be reduced?.Scottish Justice Matters, 4(1), pp.1-3. Tonry, M. ed., 2017. Crime and Justice, Volume 45: Sentencing Policies and Practices in Western Countries: Comparative and Cross-National Perspectives (Vol. 45).University of Chicago Press.

Pasteurized Milk Essay Essay Example

Pasteurized Milk Essay Essay Millions and 1000000s of people drink cow’s milk every twenty-four hours. Milk has become an evident necessity in an copiousness of peoples’ lives. Many people use milk for breakfast such as on cereal. seting in their java or merely as a glass of milk with toast. At most food market shops. the picks are fat free. one per centum. two per centum. and whole milk. It is believed that milk as a beginning of Ca leads to strong castanetss. but this belief has its disparagers and has become controversial. Ads such as â€Å"Got Milk† have brainwashed us into believing that we â€Å"need† it. We will write a custom essay sample on Pasteurized Milk Essay specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Pasteurized Milk Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Pasteurized Milk Essay specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer But most of the clip this cow’s milk is contaminated with growing endocrines and pesticides. In add-on. pasteurisation destroys about all the nutritionary value in cow’s milk. The disadvantages to imbibing cow’s milk far outweigh the advantages. Drinking milk causes increasing wellness jobs. and may even take to an over-intake of Ca which can be merely every bit debatable as non plenty. In the late nineteenth century. a turning figure of influential people throughout the state believed that American metropoliss had a milk job. Newspaper articles exposed the dismaying conditions in which cattles were fed slop. The state of affairs was known as â€Å"the milk problem† . ( Group III ) Named after Louis Pasteur. pasteurisation is a procedure that requires heating the milk to kill bacteriums and prevent spoilage. It was introduced for safety grounds. but because of the manner it depletes the milk. pasteurisation has led to many wellness jobs throughout the universe. Pasteurized milk is said to be much safer than natural milk and bring forth less wellness jobs. But how could it be when rBGH is injected into cattles doing them to bring forth between 10s and 20 per centum more milk? RBGH-treated animate beings have a 25 per centum greater opportunity of developing mastitis ( a potentially deathly redness of the bag ) . an 18 per centum greater opportunity of going infertile. and a 50 per centum greater opportunity of going square. ( Debating the Safety ) And if one thinks about it. it is upseting to believe we drink the milk that comes from those cattles. Prostate and chest malignant neoplastic diseases have been linked to ingestion of pasteurised milk. chiefly related to additions in a compound called insulin-like growing factors. Milk ingestion can besides lend to important sums of fat and cholesterin in our organic structures. ( Markoff ) Statisticss have besides shown that low milk consumption during childhood was associated with a higher opportunity of low bone denseness taking to osteoporosis. But statistics have besides shown that excessively high milk intake during childhood increased the opportunity of low bone denseness! ( Kalkworf 257-265 ) Along with bone denseness. adult females in the U. S. are the biggest consumers of milk in the universe. yet have the highest degrees of osteoporosis. ( Karpf ) Children grow up imbibing cow’s milk as portion of their mundane life non cognizing that it is harmful to them and their future wellness. Cow’s milk can impair a child’s ability to absorb Fe. Combined with the fact that milk has virtually no Fe of its ain. the consequence is an increased hazard of Fe lack. Children can besides hold reactions to milk proteins that show up as respiratory jobs and skin conditions. ( Markoff ) Cow’s milk proteins are a common cause of gripes. and now the American Academy of Pediatrics has concluded that there is grounds that cow’s milk may good lend to childhood-onset diabetes. Equally good as diabetes. fleshiness has become a job in the United States. Consumption of pasteurized cow’s milk has contributed to this due to the high degree of concentrated fat in it. ( Kalkworf ) Osteoporosis can be caused by non adequate Ca. but besides by excessively much Ca. That is because one time bones become saturated with excessively much Ca the ability to absorb more is inhibited. As many kids grow they start demoing marks of osteoporosis and it is from unstable Ca degrees. Pasteurized cow’s milk is a really common nutrient beginning of Ca. But there are other nutrient beginnings than milk and dairy merchandises that provide Ca. Foods such as leafy green veggies. nuts. beans and seeds. fish and shellfish. and addendums all are a beginning of Ca. Calcium beginnings such as Spinacia oleracea. benne seeds and Prunus dulciss have even more Ca than milk. ( Jamerson ) Humans are the lone mammals that drink another animal’s milk. There are many other milk options such as soy. Prunus dulcis and coconut. One ground that cow’s milk is non every bit good as a bastioned option is that milk contains lactose doing it more acidic. Approximately 75 per centum of the world’s population is lactose intolerant. which means that they are unable to to the full digest dairy merchandises. Lactase is the enzyme needed to digest milk sugar. and most people stop bring forthing it around the age of 5. ( Calcium and Milk ) Another ground cow’s milk is non good is its nutritionary value. When cow’s milk is pasteurized it kills bacteriums but it besides destroys the healthful foods. increasing sugars and fats and transforming proteins into unnatural amino acids that are less than healthy. hence bring forthing less Ca. ( Mercola ) Ever since we were immature. we believed that milk was good for us and our parents ever told us. â€Å"Drink your milk. so you grow up to be strong and healthy. † It is true that Ca builds strong castanetss. but it doesn’t mean that the sum in cow’s milk needfully does. Due to pasteurisation. cow’s milk is said to hold less Ca. ( Mercola ) It is frequently argued that pasteurised cow’s milk is much safer than other milk due to the violent death of bacteriums and pesticides. Of class. many would see the benefits ; nevertheless. pasteurisation kills the good bacteriums and much of the foods to supply a healthful diet. ( Debating the Safety ) Opposing positions claim that cow’s milk helps cut down the hazard of osteoporosis. In fact. they go every bit far as claiming that it will wholly forestall osteoporosis and aid strengthen castanetss. On the other manus. statistics show that consumers of milk have a greater opportunity of osteoporosis. ( Karpf ) Cow ownership and the many resources cattles provide have been a portion of our history for centuries. Cow’s milk has been a pillar in the human diet. For most of this clip it was natural milk that was consumed. and it was non until the last hundred old ages that pasteurisation came into drama. By this clip. milk as a fundamental in our diet had been established. so doing it safer by killing harmful bacteriums seemed a great thought. However. imbibing pasteurised cow’s milk has led to a complex array of wellness jobs such as high cholesterin. diabetes. gripes. lactose intolerance. and osteoporosis. There is dissension over the sum of Ca really in cow’s milk. and whether or non ingestion of cows’ milk contributes to osteoporosis. Although doing milk safer to imbibe. pasteurisation is said to compromise the nutritionary value of milk. and hence alternate Ca beginnings should be considered. Cow’s milk genuinely does non supply the benefits that the â€Å"Got Milk† commercials would wish us to believe. Works Cited â€Å"Calcium and Milk: What’s Best for Your Bones and Health? † Harvard School of Public Health. President and Fellows of Harvard College. n. d. Web. 22 Feb. 2013. . â€Å"Debating the Safety of Milk from rBGH-Treated Cows ( sidebar ) . † Facts on File Issues and Controversies. Facts on File. 12 Feb. 1999. Web. 14 Feb. 2013. . Group III. Edward F. . Dr. â€Å"Pasteurized V. Natural Milk: Which One Is Healthier for You amp ; Your Family? † Global Healing Center: Natural Health and Organic Living. Global Healing Center. 28 Sept. 2009. Web. 23 Feb. 2013. . Jamerson. Ann. â€Å"Sources of Calcium Other Than Milk. † Livestrong. Demand Media. 8 Sept. 2010. Web. 24 Feb. 2013. . Kalkworf. Heidi J. . Jane C. Khoury. and Bruce P. Lanphear. â€Å"Milk consumption during childhood and adolescence. grownup bone denseness. and osteoporotic breaks in US adult females. † The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77 ( 2003 ) : 257-65. Print. Karpf. Anne. â€Å"Dairy Monsters. † The Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited. 12 Dec. 2003. Web. 11 Feb. 2013. . Markoff. Steven C. â€Å"Is Drinking Milk Healthy for Humans. † ProCon. N. p. . 6 Aug. 2009. Web. 11 Feb. 2013. . Mercola. Joseph. Dr. â€Å"Why You Shouldn’t Drink Pasteurized Milk. † Huffington Post. HuffingtonPost. 3 June 2010. Web. 21 Feb. 2013.

The Worlds Most Endangered Frogs

The Worlds Most Endangered Frogs Frogs are the most numerous of the worlds amphibians, but they are rapidly declining, and many species are actually facing the imminent threat of extinction. Pollution, global warming, and habitat destruction from human development have already taken a serious toll, reports Animal Planet. Frogs, in particular, have suffered, having lost an estimated 170 species in the last 10 years alone. Frogs are also affected by a singular danger that is threatening their populations worldwide: the chytrid fungus, which coats frogs skin and seals out vital moisture and kills frogs by dehydration. Adenomus dasi Agalychnis moreletii Albericus siegfriedi Alexteroon jynx Allobates juanii Alsodes montanus Alsodes tumultuosus Alsodes vanzolinii Ameerega ingeri Ameerega planipaleae Amietophrynus taiensis Andinophryne colomai Anodonthyla vallani Aromobates leopardalis Aromobates meridensis Aromobates nocturnus Arthroleptella rugosa Arthroleptis kidogo Arthroleptis troglodytes Astylosternus nganhanus Atelopus andinus Atelopus angelito Atelopus arsyecue Atelopus arthuri Atelopus balios Atelopus bomolochos Atelopus boulengeri Atelopus carauta Atelopus carbonerensis Atelopus carrikeri Atelopus chiriquiensis Atelopus chocoensis Atelopus chrysocorallus Atelopus coynei Atelopus cruciger Atelopus ebenoides Atelopus elegans Atelopus epikeisthos Atelopus erythropus Atelopus eusebianus Atelopus eusebiodiazi Atelopus exiguus Atelopus famelicus Atelopus farci Atelopus galactogaster Atelopus glyphus Atelopus guanujo Atelopus guitarraensis Atelopus halihelos Atelopus laetissimus Atelopus lozanoi Atelopus lynchi Atelopus mandingues Atelopus mindoensis Atelopus minutulus Atelopus monohernandezii Atelopus mucubajiensis Atelopus muisca Atelopus nahumae Atelopus nanay Atelopus nepiozomus Atelopus nicefori Atelopus onorei Atelopus oxyrhynchus Atelopus pachydermus Atelopus patazensis Atelopus pedimarmoratus Atelopus peruensis Atelopus petersi Atelopus petriruizi Atelopus pictiventris Atelopus pinangoi Atelopus planispina Atelopus pulcher Atelopus pyrodactylus Atelopus quimbaya Atelopus reticulatus Atelopus seminiferus Atelopus senex Atelopus sernai Atelopus simulatus Atelopus sonsonensis Atelopus sorianoi Atelopus subornatus Atelopus tamaense Atelopus varius Atelopus walkeri Atelopus zeteki Atopophrynus syntomopus Bokermannohyla izecksohni Boophis williamsi Bromeliohyla dendroscarta Callulina hanseni Callulina kanga Callulina laphami Callulina shengena Callulina stanleyi Cardioglossa alsco Cardioglossa trifasciata Centrolene ballux Centrolene gemmatum Centrolene heloderma Charadrahyla altipotens Charadrahyla trux Churamiti maridadi Colostethus jacobuspetersi Conraua derooi Cophixalus concinnus Cophyla berara Craugastor anciano Craugastor andi Craugastor angelicus Craugastor catalinae Craugastor coffeus Craugastor cruzi Craugastor emcelae Craugastor emleni Craugastor epochthidius Craugastor fecundus Craugastor fleischmanni Craugastor glaucus Craugastor greggi Craugastor guerreroensis Craugastor lineatus Craugastor megalotympanum Craugastor merendonensis Craugastor milesi Craugastor olanchano Craugastor omoaensis Craugastor polymniae Craugastor pozo Craugastor ranoides Craugastor saltuarius Craugastor stadelmani Craugastor tabasarae Craugastor taurus Craugastor trachydermus Cryptobatrachus nicefori Cycloramphus faustoi Dendropsophus amicorum Discoglossus nigriventer Duellmanohyla salvavida Duellmanohyla soralia Duellmanohyla uranochroa Duttaphrynus sumatranus Ecnomiohyla echinata Ecnomiohyla rabborum Ecnomiohyla salvaje Ecnomiohyla valancifer Eleutherodactylus albipes Eleutherodactylus alticola Eleutherodactylus amadeus Eleutherodactylus apostates Eleutherodactylus bakeri Eleutherodactylus bartonsmithi Eleutherodactylus blairhedgesi Eleutherodactylus bresslerae Eleutherodactylus brevirostris Eleutherodactylus caribe Eleutherodactylus cavernicola Eleutherodactylus chlorophenax Eleutherodactylus corona Eleutherodactylus cubanus Eleutherodactylus darlingtoni Eleutherodactylus dixoni Eleutherodactylus dolomedes Eleutherodactylus eneidae Eleutherodactylus eunaster Eleutherodactylus fowleri Eleutherodactylus furcyensis Eleutherodactylus fuscus Eleutherodactylus glandulifer Eleutherodactylus glanduliferoides Eleutherodactylus grandis Eleutherodactylus griphus Eleutherodactylus iberia Eleutherodactylus jasperi Eleutherodactylus jaumei Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi Eleutherodactylus jugans Eleutherodactylus junori Eleutherodactylus karlschmidti Eleutherodactylus lamprotes Eleutherodactylus leoncei Eleutherodactylus locustus Eleutherodactylus lucioi Eleutherodactylus mariposa Eleutherodactylus nortoni Eleutherodactylus orcutti Eleutherodactylus orientalis Eleutherodactylus oxyrhyncus Eleutherodactylus parabates Eleutherodactylus parapelates Eleutherodactylus paulsoni Eleutherodactylus pezopetrus Eleutherodactylus poolei Eleutherodactylus rhodesi Eleutherodactylus richmondi Eleutherodactylus rivularis Eleutherodactylus rufescens Eleutherodactylus rufifemoralis Eleutherodactylus schmidti Eleutherodactylus sciagraphus Eleutherodactylus semipalmatus Eleutherodactylus sisyphodemus Eleutherodactylus symingtoni Eleutherodactylus tetajulia Eleutherodactylus thorectes Eleutherodactylus tonyi Eleutherodactylus turquinensis Eleutherodactylus ventrilineatus Eleutherodactylus warreni Eupsophus insularis Exerodonta perkinsi Fejervarya murthii Gastrotheca lauzuricae Gastrotheca zeugocystis Geocrinia alba Glandirana minima Heleophryne rosei Holoaden bradei Hyalinobatrachium crybetes Hyla bocourti Hyla heinzsteinitzi Hylomantis lemur Hyloscirtus chlorosteus Hyloscirtus colymba Hyloscirtus ptychodactylus Hyloxalus anthracinus Hyloxalus delatorreae Hyloxalus edwardsi Hyloxalus ruizi Hyloxalus vertebralis Hyperolius pickersgilli Hyperolius watsonae Hypodactylus lucida Hypsiboas cymbalum Incilius cristatus Incilius fastidiosus Incilius peripatetes Indirana gundia Indirana phrynoderma Ingerana charlesdarwini Insuetophrynus acarpicus Isthmohyla angustilineata Isthmohyla calypsa Isthmohyla debilis Isthmohyla graceae Isthmohyla insolita Isthmohyla rivularis Isthmohyla tica Leiopelma archeyi Leptobrachella palmata Leptodactylodon erythrogaster Leptodactylus fallax Leptodactylus magistris Leptodactylus silvanimbus Leptophryne cruentata Lithobates chichicuahutla Lithobates omiltemanus Lithobates pueblae Lithobates sevosus Lithobates subaquavocalis Lithobates tlaloci Lithobates vibicarius Litoria booroolongensis Litoria castanea Litoria lorica Litoria myola Litoria nyakalensis Litoria piperata Litoria spenceri Mannophryne caquetio Mannophryne cordilleriana Mannophryne lamarcai Mannophryne neblina Mannophryne olmonae Mantella aurantiaca Mantella cowanii Mantella milotympanum Mantidactylus pauliani Megastomatohyla mixe Megastomatohyla pellita Melanophryniscus langonei Micrixalus kottigeharensis Microbatrachella capensis Microhyla karunaratnei Minyobates steyermarki Nannophrys marmorata Nectophrynoides paulae Nectophrynoides poyntoni Nectophrynoides wendyae Niceforonia adenobrachia Nimbaphrynoides liberiensis Nimbaphrynoides occidentalis Nyctibatrachus dattatreyaensis Nymphargus anomalus Nymphargus laurae Odontophrynus moratoi Odorrana wuchuanensis Oophaga lehmanni Oreobates pereger Oreobates zongoensis Oreolalax liangbeiensis Parhoplophryne usambarica Pelophryne linanitensis Pelophryne murudensis Pelophylax cerigensis Peltophryne florentinoi Peltophryne fluviatica Peltophryne lemur Petropedetes dutoiti Philautus jacobsoni Philautus sanctisilvaticus Philoria frosti Phrynobatrachus chukuchuku Phrynobatrachus intermedius Phrynopus dagmarae Phrynopus heimorum Phrynopus juninensis Phrynopus kauneorum Phrynopus tautzorum Phyllomedusa ayeaye Phytotriades auratus Platymantis insulatus Plectrohyla acanthodes Plectrohyla avia Plectrohyla calthula Plectrohyla calvicollina Plectrohyla celata Plectrohyla cembra Plectrohyla chryses Plectrohyla chrysopleura Plectrohyla crassa Plectrohyla cyanomma Plectrohyla dasypus Plectrohyla ephemera Plectrohyla exquisita Plectrohyla guatemalensis Plectrohyla hartwegi Plectrohyla hazelae Plectrohyla ixil Plectrohyla pachyderma Plectrohyla pokomchi Plectrohyla psarosema Plectrohyla pycnochila Plectrohyla quecchi Plectrohyla sabrina Plectrohyla siopela Plectrohyla tecunumani Plectrohyla teuchestes Plectrohyla thorectes Polypedates fastigo Pristimantis albericoi Pristimantis bernali Pristimantis hamiotae Pristimantis lichenoides Pristimantis phragmipleuron Pristimantis simonsii Pristimantis torrenticola Pristimantis tribulosus Pristimantis veletis Prostherapis dunni Pseudophilautus amboli Pseudophilautus limbus Pseudophilautus lunatus Pseudophilautus macropus Pseudophilautus nemus Pseudophilautus papillosus Pseudophilautus procax Pseudophilautus simba Pseudophryne corroboree Psychrophrynella guillei Psychrophrynella illimani Psychrophrynella kallawaya Psychrophrynella saltator Ptychohyla dendrophasma Ptychohyla hypomykter Ptychohyla macrotympanum Ptychohyla sanctaecrucis Rana chevronta Rana holtzi Ranitomeya abdita Ranitomeya dorisswansonae Raorchestes chalazodes Raorchestes chlorosomma Raorchestes griet Raorchestes kaikatti Raorchestes marki Raorchestes munnarensis Raorchestes ponmudi Raorchestes resplendens Raorchestes shillongensis Raorchestes sushili Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus Rhinella amabilis Rhinella chavin Rhinella rostrata Rhinoderma rufum Scinax alcatraz Scinax faivovichi Scinax peixotoi Scutiger maculatus Somuncuria somuncurensis Strabomantis helonotus Stumpffia helenae Taudactylus acutirostris Taudactylus eungellensis Taudactylus pleione Taudactylus rheophilus Telmatobius atacamensis Telmatobius cirrhacelis Telmatobius culeus Telmatobius espadai Telmatobius gigas Telmatobius niger Telmatobius pefauri Telmatobius punctatus Telmatobius vellardi Telmatobius zapahuirensis Telmatobufo bullocki Vandijkophrynus amatolicus Werneria iboundji Wolterstorffina chirioi Xanthophryne tigerina Xenopus itombwensis Xenopus longipes

Apples from the desert Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Apples from the desert - Essay Example What is strange here, and made me curious if this really happens in Israel, is the fact that despite the divorce, the man remained in the house of mother and daughter – with Hannah continuing to support the needs of the man she divorced. In â€Å"Hayuta’s Engagement Party†, Bella, the mother of Hayuta, is a daughter of a concentration camp survivor, Grandpa Mendel. The horror and trauma that Grandpa Mendel experienced during the war remained hidden in his heart for a long time, until six years ago. The impending wedding of Hayuta was feared to be another venue for Grandpa Medel’s expression of Holocaust stories. The family’s efforts to silence him created tensions between the older generations and the new generations of Israelites. What is striking in this story is that despite the probable embarrassment that Grandpa Medel could create during the party, the family recognized the importance of his presence in an occasion like this. They are willing to go through all the trouble of trying to silence him against all odds. In â€Å"Apples from the Desert†, Victoria, the mother of a rebellious daughter, only recognizes the depths of her own marital misery when she sees the loving relationship Rivka has formed outside the legal bonds of matrimony. This story presented that older generations still believed and practiced arranged marriages without knowing the desperate consequences both man and woman experience during their married life. This is a sad plight if, indeed, it still happens in Israel today. The universal issues eminent in the stories are: (1) the unconditional love that a mother has for the child (or daughter, specifically) in her stories; (2) the value one gives to one’s family and (3) the option of divorce for unhappy marriages. These issues are considered universal because they encompass people from all cultures. Definitely, there might be differences in

To what extent does misbehaviour in organisations represent a Assignment

To what extent does misbehaviour in organisations represent a challenge to managerial authorityDiscuss, with the aid of relevant examples and theories - Assignment Example From my personal experience during my group work assignment, there were instances where group members misbehaved and challenged the authority of the leader. When the group was being formed, as Schwartz (2005, pp. 1-2) advices, some ground rules were made and every group member was expected to adhere to these rules. However, one of the most common misbehaviors was concerned with some members failing to do contribute anything towards the group work (Borg et.al 2011, p. 113). For example, during group meetings, we would discuss the issues to be covered before the next meeting and every member would be expected to make a contribution. However, some of the members would fail to do any research and would come to the next meeting with nothing to show. We realized that the cause of such misbehavior was the failure by the group leader to assign specific duties to specific members. The theory of labor process analysis can be used to explain such an occurrence. As Braverman (1974, p. 52) writes, management is able to control productivity by ensuring that labor is well divided within the organization. Accordingly, in subsequent group meetings, we would discuss the issues to be handled before the next meeting and each member would be given a specific assignment to complete and present to the group. Consequently, it was much easier for the group leader to exercise control over the group’s productivity with everyone having a particular task to execute (Stewart, 2014, p. 14). In the course of working as a group, I also noticed that in some cases, some members were not willing to accept the individual weaknesses of others within the group. Clearly, group works bring together people with different personalities and capabilities and expect such people to work harmoniously. In our group, there were those people who paid more attention to detail than

The Applications Of Arrow Debreu Model Economics Essay

The Applications Of Arrow Debreu Model Economics Essay According to Elroy Dimson and Massoud Mussavian (1999), Arrow-Debreu model was developed as a model of general equilibrium that has been fundamental to economics and finance. Compared to earlier models, the Arrow-Debreu model basically generalized the notion of a commodity, differentiating commodities by time and place of delivery. For example, apples in Malaysia in July and apples in Singapore in June are considered as different commodities. Kenneth J. Arrow (1951) and Gerard Debreu (1951) work together to produce the first rigorous proof of the existence of a market clearing equilibrium, given certain restrictive assumptions. This field of research has had a profound impact not only on economic science, but also on financial markets, institutions and businesses all over the world. It often used as a general reference for other microeconomic models. As Ramu Gopalan (2008) stated, the pioneering work of Arrow and Debreu has had an enduring effect on the study of financial aspects of the economy in a general equilibrium framework. One of their key contributions is to introduce time and uncertainty into general equilibrium models. The Arrow-Debreu model was established since 1950s, many researchers had extended this model to both economics and financial economics. Although this model is criticized by various eminent economists, the dedication of this model in the history is indestructible. In this assignment, we are going to discuss the applications of Arrow-Debreu model majoring in the financial economics. The purpose of this assignment is to find out and understand more about the contributions of this model to financial theory. The applications of Arrow-Debreu model will be listed out and discussed further. Journals will be shown and summarized out in order to support our discussion. Finally, the last section in this assignment is the conclusion. 2.0 Background studies In this assignment, the applications of Arrow-Debreu model in financial economics will be discussed. But before that we have to know what the Arrow-Debreu model is. 2.1 Arrow-Debreu Model Arrow-Debreu model, also referred as Arrow-Debreu-McKenzie model (ADM model), is the fundamental model used in the General (Economic) Equilibrium Theory. It is named after its originator who are Kenneth J. Arrow (b. 1921) and Gerard Debreu (1921-2004) on Existence of an Equilibrium for a Competitive Economy as well as Lionel W. McKenzie (b. 1919). As what stated in the Farlex Financial Dictionary (2009), it says that this model is one of the most general models of competitive economy and is a crucial part of general equilibrium theory, as it can be used to prove the existence of general equilibrium (or Walrasian equilibrium) of an economy. Once we can prove the existence of such an equilibrium, it is possible to show that it is unique under certain conditions, but not in general. Furthermore, Arrow went on to extend the model to deal with the issues relating to uncertainty, stability of the equilibrium, and whether a competitive equilibrium is efficient. 2.2 Applications of Arrow-Debreu Model Arrow-Debreu model leads to a huge impact on economics and financial economics. First of all, it solves the long-standing problem of proving the existence of equilibrium in a Walrasian (competitive) system. This model analyzes the exact situations of those markets that are very competitive. In economics, Arrow-Debreu model suggests that a set of prices such as aggregate supplies will equal to aggregate demands for every commodity under certain assumptions made about the economic conditions (i.e. perfect competition and demand independence). Formulated in a purely mathematical form, the Arrow-Debreu model can be easily modified into spatial or intertemporal models with proper definition of the commodities based on the commoditys location or time of delivery. When commodities are specified to be conditional on various states of the world, the Arrow-Debreu model can easily combine expectation and uncertainty into the analysis. Besides, theoretical extensions and applications have been made to analyze financial and monetary markets and international trade, as well as other subjects. With a general equilibrium structure, the model is applicable in evaluating the overall impact on resource allocation of policy changes in areas such as taxation, tariff, and price control. Moreover, it applies to all general equilibrium models that are heavily dependent upon accurate mathematical proofs. In the field of financial economics, Arrow Debreu represents a certain kind of securities product which named as Arrow-Debreu security. This distinguished concept is a good teaching tool to understand the pricing and hedging issues in derivatives analysis. On the other hand, the Arrow-Debreu Model is also used in areas like financial engineering. But it has turned out to be very limited, especially in the multi-period or continuous markets. The model has been subject to the criticism that many of the assumptions it makes do not fit the workings of the real economy. However, the truth is that the Arrow-Debreu Model is very important for the derivative industry and helps the industry to grow at a rapid pace. 3.0 Literature Review In previous section, we have mentioned some applications of the Arrow-Debreu model both in the field of economics and financial economics. Now, the applications of this model majoring in financial economics will be discussed further. The functions of Arrow-Debreu model can be divided into six categories, asset pricing model, equity risk premium, corporate finance, Modigliani and Miller Theorem, Arrow-Debreu security and others. 3.1 Asset-pricing model From the studies, most of the Arrow-Debreu models applications are commonly used in shaping the asset-pricing model. Arrow-Debreu model was acted as an origin which gives the insight that consumption in different future states could simply view as different consumption goods according to Elroy and Massoud (1999). This result is proved and can be seen through various researchers journals. It is undeniable that the Arrow-Debreu model plays an important role in constructing the asset-pricing model. The evidences are given in following paragraphs. Based on the journal of Asset Pricing at Millennium written by John Y. Campbell (2000), he stated that theoretical and empirical developments in asset-pricing has taken place within a well establish paradigm for the last twenty years. While the well establish paradigm that he mentioned here is referred to the Arrow-Debreu model. Same as Franklin Allen (2001), he indicated that asset-pricing models are typically special cases of neoclassical Arrow-Debreu model. In the traditional Arrow-Debreu model of resource allocation, firms and households interact through markets and financial intermediaries play no role. On the other hand, the key element of the analysis in the modern version is the stochastic discount factor, which incorporates the Arrow-Debreu state prices and allows the assets to be priced. He also commented that this approach and the focus on the risk-return trade-off have allowed a rich interplay between the empirical and theoretical work. The equity premium puzzle is given as an example of special cases within the Arrow-Debreu framework in order to support his statement. Moreover, Elroy and Massoud (1999) narrated the historical development of asset pricing and derivative valuation on Three Centuries of Asst Pricing. He pointed out the success of conceptual framework that setting up the theory of asset pricing is down to Arrow (1953)s hard work. Dissatisfied with the current Arrow-Debreu framework, Arrow built up a series of contingent claims that follow the resolution of uncertainty to explain how one can achieve markets that are almost complete. Varian (1985) analyzed the impact of divergence of opinion on asset prices in an Arrow-Debreu economy. By considering the Arrow-Debreu model with agents who have different subjective probabilities, he compares and concludes the differences of opinion in an Arrow-Debreu contingent claim context. Based on his journal Divergence of Opinion in Complete Markets: A Note, three results were established. He concluded that in practice, increased dispersion of beliefs will generally be associated with the reduced asset prices in a given Arrow-Debreu equilibrium. Also, he uses this model to show that other things equal, if risk aversion does not decrease too rapidly, then assets with more dispersed opinion will have lower prices or vice versa. P. Bossaerts and C. Plott (2004) had done six financial markets experiments of testing two of the most basic propositions of modern asset pricing theory. The Arrow-Debreu model and the Sharpe-Lintner-Mossin Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), these two theoretical models are used to be the framework of their experiments. In the end of their experiments, they discovered a swift convergence towards equilibrium prices of Arrow-Debreu model or the CAPM. This discovery is significant because they use the subjects that lacked of information to intentionally set the asset prices. Sometimes, the equilibrium is not found to be robust which clearly shows a result of deviations of subjective beliefs from objective probabilities. However, they still find the evidences that prove this does not destroy the tendency for markets to equilibrate as predicted by the theory. 3.2 Equity Risk Premium Next, the Arrow-Debreu model is applied to explain the equity risk premium. In an attempt to explain the equity risk premium, Rajnish Mehra and Edward C. Prescott (1985) developed an Arrow-Debreu asset pricing model. They found that historically the average return on equity has far exceeded the average return on short-term debt and Treasury bills. Thus, they try to use the Arrow-Debreu model to interpret this situation. In the end of the journal The Equity Premium: A Puzzle, they concluded that only those equilibrium model with friction (i.e. non-Arrow-Debreu models) will be the one that successfully explain both high equity risk premium and low risk-free returns. However, Rietz (1988) overthrew the conclusion of Mehra and Prescott (1985) in The Equity Risk Premium: A Puzzle. He mentioned that the reason for them to reject the Arrow-Debreu model is their specifications which cannot explain the high equity risk premium and low risk free returns that characterize the U.S. economy. Hence, he re-specified their model to include a low-probability, depression from a high return of compensation for the extreme losses during the market crashes, captured those possible effects from the market crashes and finally successfully proved that these crashes allow it to explain both high equity risk premium and low risk free returns without abounding the Arrow-Debreu paradigm as well as not altering their models attractive features. In the journal The Equity Risk Premium: A Solution, he explained further that it does so with reasonable degrees of time preference and risk aversion provided the crashes are apparently severe and not too unimaginable. 3.3 Corporate Finance According to Jean Tirole (2006), he specified that a substantial and important body of empirical work has provided a clearer picture of patterns of corporate financing and governance, and of their impact for firm behaviour and macroeconomic activity. One of them is the Arrow-Debreu model. During 1970s, the dominant Arrow-Debreu model of frictionless markets (presumed perfectly competitive and complete, unhampered by taxes, transaction costs, as well as informational irregularity) can prove to be a powerful tool for analyzing the pricing of claims in financial markets, but little about the firms financial choices and about their governance. Besides, in the complete market paradigm of Arrow (1951) and Debreu (1951), the financial claims returns depend on some choices such as investments, are assumed to be contractible and therefore are not affected by moral hazard. In Jean (2006)s opinion, financial markets were not plagued by problems of asymmetric information because investors agree on the distribution of a claims returns. Viewed through the Arrow-Debreu lens, he identified that the key issues for financial economists are the allocation of risk among investors and the pricing of redundant claims by arbitrage. Michael J. Brennan (1995) also clarified that the abstract simplicity of the Arrow-Debreu model yields few insights for corporate finance beyond the value additivity principle that was used to refute the conventional wisdom that conglomerate mergers will add value to the company through the corporate diversification. 3.4 Modigliani and Miller Theorem (M-M Theorem) Another application of Arrow-Debreu model is related to M-M theorem which devised by Franco Modigliani and Merton Miller (1958). This theorem explains that a firms financial structure is irrelevant under certain conditions, Arrow-Debreu environment. The value of a financial claim or a firm which equal to the sum of the values of the claims it issues is thus equal to the value of the random return of this claim or the firm computed at the Arrow-Debreu prices (the prices of state-contingent securities). Therefore, Arrow-Debreu model is used as a fundamental of economy in formulating M-M theorem. 3.5 Arrow-Debreu Security (State Contingent Claim) Mostly, Arrow-Debreu security will be the answer of the applications of this model majoring in financial economics if we searching it through the internet. Based on the journal A re-examination of the Modigliani-Miller theorem written by Joseph E. Stiglitz (1969), in a section entitled Arrow-Debreu securities, he not only showed the M-M theorem in a complete markets setting but also mentioned about the Arrow-Debreu model under uncertainty in which individual can buy or sell the promises to pay if a given state of the world occurs. This shows a direct relationship between the Arrow-Debreu model and the Arrow-Debreu security. Through the calculation, he observed that if he takes literally the Arrow-Debreu definition of a state of nature, there is undoubtedly will be more states of nature than firms and most of these states are similar with each other. An example, variation in the return on stocks can be explained by the business cycle, is given to support his statement. Robert E. Lucas (1984) analyzed the unified theories of money and finance on Money in the Theory of Finance. He examined and commented that financial and monetary theory have different objective, however, the desirable theoretical unity may be, one can identify strong forces that will continue to pull apart these two bodies of theory. He mentioned that the theory of finance is conducted almost entirely within the Arrow-Debreu contingent claim framework such as the three pillars of modern financial theory which have been reformulated in contingent claim terms. Besides, he wrote that the applications of the Arrow-Debreu contingent claim formulation of a competitive equilibrium for an economy operating through time is subjected to stochastic shocks. In the end, he concluded that the power in applications of the contingent claim point of view is obviously evident in finance, will be as usefully applied to monetary theory. One more thing that he suggested is the source of this power which is the ability of this framework to permit the reduction of the study of asset demands to the study of demands for the more fundamental attributes to which assets are claims. 3.6 Others Apart from those above categories, Arrow-Debreu Models can be used for other purpose. For instance, it acts as a fundamental to explain the pattern of trade, to formulate the fixed price equilibrium or to find out whether the financial markets are arrangements for risk-sharing. Furthermore, it is extended further to analyze the restrictions and developed further that include a sequential market model with the financial markets. One of the section in the journal Differences of opinion in financial markets written by Hal R. Varian (1989), an Arrow-Debreu contingent consumption model of the sort studied by Milgrom and Stokey (1982) was examined. Through the mathematical calculation and the analysis of the consequences for assets market equilibrium based on the Arrow-Debreu model, it ends with a similar result, prices are determined by information, but the pattern of trade is determined by differences in opinion. In order to establish the important difference for trade is the opinion, he analyzed some of its consequences for assets market equilibrium. At last, he stressed that the volume of trade in an Arrow-Debreu model is due primarily to the differences of opinion. Next is the Claus Weddepohl (1983). He discussed and addressed the development of the theory of general equilibrium during the last twenty-five years. Considering and analyzing the Arrow-Debreu model with futures markets, he showed the result that this model gives rise to temporary equilibrium models. He stated that the fixed price equilibrium models are formulated through the study of these models and the study of the stability of price adjustments. The simple fixed price equilibrium model as defined by Barro and Grossman (1971) and Malinvaud (1977) is what he emphasized in the journal Developments in the Theory of General Equilibrium. Ouattara (1994) applied the Arrow-Debreu model to the small villages in the McCarthy Island Division South (MID-South) of The Gambia to find out whether financial markets are arrangements for risk-sharing. The main objective of risk-sharing is to verify that observed consumption patterns are consistent with patterns predicted by insurance models. The Arrow-Debreu full insurance model focuses on consumption smoothing across different states of nature at each particular point in time through state-contingent contracts. In the end of his research, the results supported the hypothesis that state-contingent loans are accepted in rural Gambia and there is full risk-sharing among participants in the financial markets. Peter H. Friesen (1979) extended the Arrow-Debreu model to financial markets which include the sequential market model. It is done by dropping the contingent contracts from the Arrow Debreu model, leaving only a sequence of spot markets for commodities. This leads to an inefficient market structure but efficient for sequence of stock markets and option markets. The purpose of the journal The Arrow-Debreu Model Extended to Financial Markets is to develop further the Arrow-Debreu model. The method that he used is through the extension of Arrow (an equilibrium in one model was constructed from that of another). For example, financial securities, Arrow certificates can be constructed from options on common stock and the advantage in the general equilibrium theory of financial markets, are the proofs of using Arrows method. On the other hand, the sequential market model for which equilibrium are constructed from the Arrow-Debreu equilibrium derived in Debreu (1951). From the fact that Arrow-Debreu equilibrium exist, it follows by construction that equilibrium for this model exists. It also follows that the equilibrium is efficient. Peter (1979) stressed that such models are used both to study financial markets and to explore the effects of a gradual resolution of uncertainty. Lastly, he concluded that it not only shows the close relationship between these two models but also reminds us that the potential value of finite-horizon Arrow-Debreu models for the study of sequential economies. Investors in financial markets face several restrictions apart from wealth constraints. So, we have the right to understand the restrictions in a general competitive equilibrium. Based on the journal Contributions to Intertemporal Models in Financial Economics written by Ramu Gopala (2008), the Arrow-Debreu model was extended further for the usage of analyzing those restrictions. He indicated that the traditional Arrow-Debreu model can be extended to a more realistic setting. Following Angeloni and Cornet (2006), this extension of the Arrow-Debreu model in the multi-period setting with restricted participation is established. Arrow-Debreu model was used to elaborate, to compare, to extend and to emerge for shaping those important finance theories. 4.0 Supporting Theories In this section, the theories that are related to Arrow-Debreu model will be further discussed. Apart from that, in order to let us have a more complete picture about this model, the theories that we displayed previously will also be stated and explained, as well as deliberated further. 4.1 General Equilibrium Theory General equilibrium theory is the core of economic theory. Before the Arrow-Debreu model is established, this theory has been proposed by L. Walras (1874). As reported by Arrow and Debreu (1954), he was the one who first formulated the state of economic system at any point of time as the solution of a system of simultaneous equations representing the demand for goods by consumers, the supply of goods by producers, and the equilibrium condition that supply equal demand on every market. In other words, Walras (1874) is the pioneer who first attempts to model the price for a whole economy. Walras uses mathematics to construct a complete structure of general equilibrium theory. This research has lead to results in contribution to neoclassical economics. However, the mathematics that he used to set up the foundation of this theory was unstable due to the existence of general equilibrium does not solved in a satisfactory manner. Hence, theoretically, if he cannot prove this existence, then this theoretical system will become meaningless. General equilibrium theory is therefore developed and improved by Vilfredo Pareto (1897), John R. Hicks (1939), John Von Neumann (1937), Paul A. Samuelson (1941), Kenneth J. Arrow (1954), Gerard Debreu (1954), Lionel W. McKenzie (1954) and others, which becomes an integral part of economics. 4.2 Fundamental Theorems of Welfare Economics Before the Arrow and Debreu began their famous collaboration, both of them had proved the same theorem which is the Fundamental Theorems of Welfare Economics or First and Second Welfare Theorems. There are two fundamental theorems of welfare economics. The first theorem states that every general equilibrium involves a Pareto efficient allocation of resources under the three assumptions. The three assumptions are if there are no externalities, all agents are price-taker, and prices for each good are known to each agent. While the Pareto efficient named after Vilfredo Pareto (1897), is a type of efficiency that results if one person cannot be made better off without making someone else worse off. The First Welfare Theorem is viewed by many economists as the formalization of Smiths Invisible Hand. As Makowski and Ostroy (1995) stated, it provided a set of sufficient conditions for a price system to efficiently coordinate the economic activity. Besides, this theorem supports the case for non-intervention in ideal conditions. For instance, the outcome is said to be Pareto efficient if we let the markets to do the work. The Second Welfare Theorem says that if preferences are well-behaved (especially convex) then every Pareto efficient allocation can be supported by a general equilibrium set of prices, given a suitable reallocation of the endowment. Referring to Varian (1985), this theorem effectively said that if you think an equilibrium is unfair, just move the endowment of the economy and a different general equilibrium will be obtained. Due to the convexity, the second theorem is stronger than the first theorem. The difference between these two theorems is the second theorem requires existence of general equilibrium from all endowment points, whereas the first theorem required only that if a general equilibrium existed it was efficient. According to Michael A. S. Guth (1994), Arrow (1951) provided a rigorous proof of the connection between competitive equilibrium and Pareto optimal. Gerard Debreu (1951) introduced convex analysis methods into welfare theory and independently proved the same theorems. As a result, these theorems have an important relation to Arrow-Debreu model; the existence of solutions to a competitive equilibrium is finally solved. 4. 3 Theories in relation to the Restriction of General Competitive Equilibrium Previously, the Arrow-Debreu model was used to analyze the restrictions. In order to understand those restrictions in the general competitive equilibrium framework, tracing back those following theories is necessary for us to know how the Arrow-Debreu model was used to be compared and proved other economic theory. 4.3.1 Radner Equilibrium Roy Radner said that the Arrow-Debreu model is not originally put forward for the case of uncertainty, but a powerful device introduced by Arrow (1953), and further elaborated by Debreu (1953), enabled the theory to be reinterpreted to cover the case of uncertainty about the availability of resources and about consumption and production possibilities. Hence, he extends the Arrow-Debreu equilibrium and forms an economic concept-Radner Equilibrium. Radner (1972) is the first who considers the general equilibrium with incomplete markets. He shows that unlike the Arrow-Debreu models, the possibility of trading commodity futures for every contingency is sufficient to enable income transfers across all spots. In addition, the assumption that he made, short-sales of these contracts are limited for every agent, is a driving force in his proof of the existence of a general financial equilibrium. This can be seen as the first attempt to incorporate this idea in their asset market participation. 4.3.2 Concept of Constrained Pareto Optimality Radner Equilibrium, however, is imperfect. Oliver D. Hart (1975) uses some disturbing but perceptive counter-examples to display some of the weaknesses of Radners concept of equilibrium. He showed that existence of such an equilibrium cannot be proved under the standard Arrow-Debreu assumptions. He specified that when the asset returns are price dependent, the market sub-space may not be continuous in the spot prices which may lead to discontinuous demand functions. This reason causes a failure of the existence of Radner equilibrium. In other words, an equilibrium may not be Pareto efficient in the case of incomplete markets which shapes the concept of Constrained Pareto Optimality. 4.4 Limitations of Arrow-Debreu Model Although the Arrow-Debreu model has many influences on either economics or finance, however, there are the limitations. There are three limitations of Arrow-Debreu model. In this model, it excludes the trade in shares of firms because the stock certificate is not an Arrow-Debreu commodity. When the descriptions are so precise that further refinements cannot yield imaginable allocations which increase the satisfaction of the agents in the economy, then the commodities are called Arrow-Debreu commodity. Trading in shares of firms cannot be classified as Arrow-Debreu commodity due to its possession entitles the owner to additional commodity which he need not obtain through exchange. Bankruptcy is not allowed in Arrow-Debreu equilibrium. All agents must meet their budget constraints. In a game theoretic formulation of equilibrium, it is achieved by enforcing an infinite bankruptcy penalty. Since every Arrow-Debreu equilibrium is Pareto efficient, there would be no benefit in reducing the bankruptcy penalty to the point where someone might choose to go bankrupt. Money does not appear in this model. Although the reasons for the existence of money in real life are already taken care of in the Arrow-Debreu model, money does not affect the allocations of commodities. Therefore, there is no point in making the role of money explicit in the Arrow-Debreu model. 5.0 Conclusion In fact, Arrow-Debreu model is not simultaneously created by K.J. Arrow and Gerard Debreu. Debreu is the one who extends further the Arrows pure exchange model in several important ways. Their contribution in formulating Arrow-Debreu model has laid a foundation for economic theory. The application of Arrow-Debreu model emphasizes more on the general competitive equilibrium framework of the economics. From the studies, we notice that most of its application majoring in the financial economics is act as a fundamental theory or economy in shaping the asset pricing model. Other functions like analyzing the market structure, risk and etc, also show that the usefulness of this model. Besides, it is applicable in evaluating the impact of all uncertainties with a general equilibrium structure. The analyzers use a series of mathematical equation to prove their statements. The pioneering contributions of Arrow and Debreu have forever changed the way economic theorists formulate uncertainty models.   After more than forty years of analysis and extensions, their general equilibrium framework and approach continues to be the starting point for new theories on the operation of competitive markets under uncertainty. As a conclusion, it is undeniable that the Arrow-Debreu model had turn on a new leaf in the history of economics. It is the modern concept of general equilibrium in economics which indirectly set up several important theories. Nothing is perfect in this world. Of course, Arrow-Debreu model as well. Some assumptions have to be made. Criticism also may happen. However, those brilliant economists or researchers still can use this model to formulate their own theory and then ends up with a perfect ultimate theory in both economics and finance. Lastly, mistakes, problems, and weaknesses should be pointed out, corrected and improved so that Arrow-Debreu model can be applied and developed effectively.

Plagiarism in Higher Education Essay

Al Ain Women’s College, Higher Colleges of Technology, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of the modern information society on attitudes and approaches to the prevention of plagiarism and to examine a less punitive, more educative model. Design/methodology/approach – The approach taken is a literature review of plagiarism in contemporary society followed by a case study of the education department of a tertiary-level college in the United Arab Emirates. Findings – The authors advocate a move towards a less punitive, more educative approach which takes into account all the relevant contextual factors. A call is made for a truly institutional response to a shared concern, with comprehensive and appropriate policies and guidelines which focus on prevention, the development of student skills, and the proactive involvement of all relevant stakeholders. Practical implications – This approach could inform the policies and practices of institutions who wish to systematically deal with plagiarism in other contemporary contexts. Originality/value – This paper could be of value to policy makers and administrators in tertiary institutions, particularly in English as a second language contexts, who recognise the limitations of traditional approaches to plagiarism and wish to establish more effective practices. Keywords Copyright law, Information society, Dishonesty, United Arab Emirates Paper type Literature review Plagiarism in political discourse Politicians, more than anyone else, need to portray an image of integrity, honesty, and independent thought. Their election, their livelihood, and the fate of their constituents would seem to depend on it. Yet politicians commonly use speechwriters who have the speci? c task of conveying their thoughts, personality, and personal sincerity (see for example, Philp, 2009). It may be argued that although politicians do not necessarily write the words themselves, they endorse the words they use. But what if the words themselves are not original? In one instance, the presidential candidate Barack Obama was confronted by the fact that some of his speeches had taken material from Deval Patrick, the Massachusetts Governor. Obama admitted he should have acknowledged his source: Education, Business and Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues Vol. 3 No. 3, 2010 pp. 166-177 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1753-7983 DOI 10. 1108/17537981011070082 I was on the stump. [Deval] had suggested that we use these lines and I thought they were good lines [. . . ] I’m sure I should have – didn’t this time [. . . ] I really don’t think this is too big of a deal (Obama cited in Whitesides, 2008). Published by kind permission of HCT Press. Plagiarism has been de? ned as â€Å"the unacknowledged use of someone else’s work [. . . ] and passing it off as if it were one’s own† (Park, 2004, p.292) and it is interesting to speculate whether such an excuse would be accepted from a student by an educational institution’s plagiarism committee. Accusations of plagiarism in politics have been made before, of course, though the outcomes were often different, suggesting that a shift may be taking place in attitudes towards plagiarism in politics. In 1987, another presidential hopeful was forced to abandon his ambitions for high of? ce largely because he had plagiarised a speech by the British politician Neil Kinnock and because of â€Å"a serious plagiarism incident† in his law school years (Sabato, 1998). Ironically, the candidate was none other than Joe Biden, the man chosen by Obama to be his Vice President. In politics today, it seems as though plagiarism no longer signals the end of a career. In contrast, students who are caught cheating or plagiarising can be subject to sanctions and consequences that are severely life impacting, which in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) can include permanent exclusion from all tertiary education (see for example, Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT), 2008). One question of fundamental concern that we must ask ourselves as tertiary-level educators is why college students, who have much less at stake, considerably less experience and knowledge and who do not use English as their ? rst language, should be held to higher standards of responsibility in communication than those in the highest political of? ces? Yet, if we make allowances for students who are still learning to orientate themselves in academic discourse, what standards should be applied? Plagiarism in a complex information society The concept of plagiarism is a relatively new cultural phenomenon. Greek philosophers regularly appropriated material from earlier works without compunction, and originality was considered less important than imitating, often orally, the great works of their predecessors (Lackie and D’Angelo-Long, 2004, p. 37). All the way through the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the study of rhetoric rather than written language was often the norm, with students required to give public speeches to assembled faculty. Only the subsequent move towards written assignments brought with it new perceptions of student plagiarism (Simmons, 1999, p. 41). Around the same time, in the earlier part of the twentieth century, the formalization of citation styles from organizations such as the American Psychological Association marked a desire to standardise academic writing and provide a model for ethically quoting the work of others (Simmons, 1999, p. 42). With the rise of the information society and electronic media, another cultural shift seems to be underway. There have been recent suggestions that plagiarism is becoming more prevalent, and much of the blame has been placed on â€Å"nearly universal access to the Internet† (Scanlon and Neumann, 2002, p. 374). Park (2004, p. 293) refers to the ease of â€Å"copying [. . . ] in a digital world of computers, word processing, electronic sources and the Internet. † However, the explosion of electronic sources of information has not just made copying easier, it has also made it much more central to our students’ cultural and social experiences. Students going into tertiary education have grown up with the internet and are at home with downloading â€Å"free† ? lms, sharing music and modifying and emailing all kinds of material taken from the web. They have developed highly skilled ways of conducting non-academic research using  services such as search engines, social networking sites, podcasts, RSS feeds, discussion boards, etc. with Dealing with plagiarism 167 EBS 3,3 168 hyperlinks allowing them to jump from site to site as though the internet were a single-uni? ed source, and with copying and pasting a mainstay of interaction. They take it for granted that a pop star such as will. i. am can pick up and rework virtually the entire content of a political speech, and turn it into the award winning song and music video Yes we can, apparently without Obama’s knowledge or consent ((The) ABC News, 2008). They are not surprised when this video is then embedded in countless webpages, with the lyrics of the song posted on music sites without any attribution of the original source (see for example, LyricsReg, n. d). This intertextuality is a perfect example of the â€Å"postmodern, self-cannibalizing popular culture† (Bowman, 2004, p. 8) that our students now engage with on a daily basis. Students may well bring to the classroom very different ideas from their teachers about what constitutes fair use. Indeed, one study of 2,600 tertiary-level students in the UAE found that just over 40 percent considered cutting and pasting from the internet as either trivial cheating or not cheating at all. The attitudes of UAE students are similar to those of other students around the world (Croucher, 2009). Some theorists have gone a step further and argue that as the new media become more interactive and collaborative, it calls into question the whole idea of a â€Å"creative, original, individual who, as an autonomous scholar, presents his/her work to the public in his/her own name† (Scollon, 1995, p.1). The multiple contributors to Wikipedia pages is a clear example of how a collaborative process undermines our sense of authorship. In addition, the notion of what constitutes â€Å"fair use† is changing quickly. This is exempli? ed by the open source movement where material can be downloaded, modi? ed, and shared with minimal and strictly controlled author’s rights (See for example, Open Source Initiative, n. d). As Blum (2009) notes, the â€Å"rules about intellectual property are in ? ux. † Where does this leave educators? Has plagiarism become an irrelevant concept, too outdated in its de? nition to be of use in the production of educated professionals ready to take their place in our post-modern society? Do we have to accept Johnson’s (2007) argument that in the digital age, writing an original essay outside of class for assessment purposes is no longer viable in its current form because of the ease of copying from the internet? Do we have to agree with him when he says such tasks are no longer even relevant because they fail to re? ect the modern workplace? As Johnson argues: My transfer from education to the world of business has reminded me just how important it is to be able to synthesize content from multiple sources, put structure around it and edit it into a coherent, single-voiced whole. Students who are able to create convincing amalgamations have gained a valuable business skill. Unfortunately, most schools fail to recognize that any skills have been used at all, and an entire paper can be discarded because of a few lines repeated from another source without quotation marks. Plagiarism in education Plagiarism in education seems to operate under a very different set of rules from the pragmatic ? elds of politics or business and can create emotional responses that deploy highly charged metaphors such as The Plagiarism Plague (Bowman, 2004) or â€Å"Winning hearts and minds in war on plagiarism† (Jaschik, 2008). In education, plagiarism is â€Å"seen as a transgression against our common intellectual values, carrying justi? ably bad consequences for those guilty of the practice† (Isserman, 2003). Why is it generally accepted that politicians can use ghostwriters, but that students cannot, even if the stakes for the students are much lower? The critical issue for education is that plagiarism â€Å"circumvents the learning process† (Spencer, 2004, p. 16). The process of analysing and synthesizing ideas, and reformulating them in writing, is seen as central to learning. Only by ensuring that students struggle to assimilate material and develop their own voice do students go beyond surface information and develop higher order thinking skills. As Isserman (2003) notes: [.. . ] ownership over the words you use [. . . ] is really at the heart of the learning process. You can read a dozen books about the cold war, but if you can’t explain what you have learned to someone else in your own words, no real learning has taken place [. . . ] and you will have made no progress whatsoever toward realizing the central goal of a liberal-arts education: the ability to think for yourself. Dealing with plagiarism 169 This struggle for intellectual development is not easy, which is precisely the reason that makes plagiarism attractive for some students. In most cases teachers are not concerned about literary theft, but that their students are missing out on opportunities for learning because they are failing to engage with the material in a meaningful way. Plagiarism is therefore â€Å"denying them the opportunity to learn lessons, improve their study skills, and improve their knowledge and understanding† (Lancaster University, 2009, p. 3). If plagiarism is especially serious in education because it is an obstacle to learning, then we should deal with instances of plagiarism primarily from an educational perspective rather than the punitive one. Students need to learn the importance of academic integrity and understand that it is not just a hoop to be jumped through, but is integral to intellectual and personal growth. Clearly this learning process cannot be instantaneous, and allowances should be made as students develop. However, this does not mean that severe penalties should be removed from the process entirely as there will always be students who refuse or are unable to meet appropriate standards. Factors in? uencing the incidence of plagiarism Individual, pedagogical, and institutional factors can all in? uence the incidence of plagiarism. Students themselves can be impacted by a wide range of factors including their educational conditioning, cultural background, motivation, language skill, peer pressure, gender, issues with time management, ability, and even the subject being studied (Roig, 1997). If the tertiary experience is vastly different to students’ previous educational experience, the motivation for plagiarism again increases. In the UAE, it is likely, for example, that the students’ primary and secondary schooling was characterised by rote learning and the quest for a single correct answer, non-transparent and poorly conceived assessment practices, and vast social inequities within the student base, and between students and their often socially and economically disadvantaged teachers. Norms, expectations, and demands learned in this context can be dif? cult to dislodge in subsequent institutions which place a premium on the exploration of problems and solutions, independent and critical thinking skills, and academic integrity. If plagiarism is not de? ned or academic processes made explicit, then such students will ? nd it impossible to reach the standards that are suddenly and (to them) inexplicably imposed on them. Pedagogical approaches may also contribute to the prevalence of plagiarism. Current methodologies place much more emphasis on collaboration and group work, with a greater weight given to out-of-class projects and portfolios at the expense of formal exams. The result is that the line between collaboration and cheating during assessed tasks is blurred, and if this is not explicitly dealt with by assessors, it will inevitably EBS 3,3 170 result in misunderstandings as to what is acceptable. Also, students are more likely to justify cheating if the coursework or assignments they were given were too hard, poorly scaffolded, or based on unreasonable expectations of their abilities (Naidoo, 2008), and plagiarism will be made easier if the assignments are not constructed carefully so that stock answers cannot be copied from the internet (Wood, 2004). However, the institutional context plays perhaps the most critical role. For example, unclear and uncommunicated institutional policies with vague de?  nitions of plagiarism can affect the incidence of plagiarism, as can the application of those policies (McCabe et al. , 2002). Some aspects of an organization may unwittingly encourage plagiarism. For example, in contrast to schools, tertiary education institutions in the UAE do not typically award top grades to large numbers of students, and there is evidence to suggest that students justify using ghostwriters in such an environment because they believe they deserve better grades (Croucher, 2009). An often overlooked but crucial aspect of deterring and detecting plagiarism is the application of institutional policies by teachers. One survey of 800 American academics at 16 institutions found that 40 percent never reported incidents of plagiarism while a further 54 percent did so only seldomly, even though the evidence suggested they must have received plagiarised work (McCabe, 1993 cited in Schneider, 1999). There are many reasons why teachers may be reluctant to report plagiarism. Teachers may feel the potential penalties for students are too high (Auer and Krupar, 2001). They may also be wary of making false accusations which potentially undermine their own professional status. Some teachers object to taking on the role of detective or enforcer as it undermines the mentor-student relationship (Schneider, 1999; Park, 2004) while others may not have the time to make an extra effort to uncover plagiarism and follow it up (Park, 2004). It may also be that some teachers, especially teachers of content subjects where the focus is less on form and more on ideas, may not have suf? ciently developed skills to detect plagiarism. Hyland (2001) found that even teachers who detect plagiarism may use indirect feedback when dealing with plagiarism (for example, comments in the margins such as â€Å"Are these your own words?†) which can lead to miscommunication with the student about what is acceptable. With so many factors at play, the responsibilities of teachers must be clearly codi? ed if any institutional initiative is to have any success. Plagiarism and ESOL/EFL English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts may be more prone to infringements of academic integrity because students lack the English skills to understand the coursework and so may feel that plagiarism offers the only solution (Hyland, 2001; Liu, 2005). Moreover, the cultural conditioning of English as a second language (ESL) and EFL students has been cited as another contributing factor. Moder (1995 cited in Lackie and D’Angelo-Long, 2004, p. 38) suggests that some societies, including those in the Middle East, â€Å"value memorization and imitation as the mark of an educated person† which may mean that plagiarism is viewed as being less signi? cant. Liu (2005, p. 239) disagrees with the notion of cultural conditioning, however, claiming that â€Å"it is  based on incorrect information and is presented often via unwarranted jumps in reasoning and con? ation of separate issues. † More pertinently, perhaps, she goes on to argue that: [. . . ] even if we concede that such cultural conditioning indeed exists to some extent, we still cannot say for sure that it is the main reason that ESOL students plagiarize. There are many other factors that may motivate ESOL students from many L1 backgrounds to plagiarize, including a lack of adequate pro? ciency, lack of task speci?c writing skills, and of course, the urge to cheat (p. 239). Dealing with plagiarism ESOL students, then, whether or not cultural conditioning is accepted as an underlying factor in plagiarism, may still have greater motivation than their ? rst language counterparts to take and use the ideas and words of others in their own assignments. Ironically, plagiarism by ESOL students is also far more likely to be detected because of more prominent differences in language level and tone between copied and original work. Degrees of plagiarism Intuitively, plagiarism varies in its severity in a way that cheating (e. g. using crib sheets or having someone else take a test for you) does not. It can consist of minor lapses, for example, when original material is poorly paraphrased but the source is acknowledged, through deliberately copying parts of a text without citing the source, to submitting work from an online paper mill (Roig, 1997). Critical factors in determining the severity of the plagiarism include the intention behind the plagiarism (was it deliberate or accidental? ), the amount of material that has been plagiarised, the inclusion of the source in the list of references, the degree to which the plagiarised material differs from the source (an indication at an attempt to paraphrase), the time the student has spent in tertiary education, and whether it is the ? rst, second, or subsequent occurrence. Given the wide variation in the seriousness of plagiarism and the developmental process students must undergo to assimilate the norms of academic writing, it is clear that the appearance of plagiarised material is not always a deliberate attempt to cheat. For example, students are often poor at paraphrasing and may not be fully aware that this could be construed as plagiarism. Roig (1999) gave English-speaking undergraduate students a two-sentence paragraph to paraphrase and found that between 41 and 68 percent of the responses contained strings of at least ? ve words or more copied from the original. These results clearly back up the claim that plagiarism may indicate a de? cit in appropriate skills and not intentional academic dishonesty. Towards an institutional response to plagiarism In many educational institutions, plagiarism is seen largely as a teacher/student problem. If plagiarism is detected, then the teacher makes a decision as to whether to escalate the case for possible punitive action. The plagiarism is seen either as morally wrong or as a â€Å"crime† – the breaking of a rule that has inevitable consequences (Blum, 2009). Unfortunately, dealing with plagiarism in this way can result in decisions which are reactive, emotive, and which are made informally on an ad hoc basis, thus inviting inequity and inconsistency. When the focus is directed towards punishment, there may be little maturation in terms of academic integrity for the student concerned, or for those who watch their classmate’s fate from the sidelines. Academic endeavour must take place within an institutional culture that routinely recognises and reinforces the value of academic integrity so that all stakeholders are obliged to proactively follow and uphold best practice in order to reduce the impact of the contributing factors discussed above. This requires the establishment of an institutional response to plagiarism that is comprehensive, appropriate, fair, developmental, transparent, and educative. 171 EBS 3,3 Park (2004, p. 294) describes such an institutional framework for dealing with plagiarism that was developed by a working party at Lancaster University in consultation with staff and with reference to experience and the literature: The working party sought to move the plagiarism discourse beyond just detection and punishment and to situate and embed it in a cohesive framework that tackles the root causes as well as the symptoms of plagiarism as a family of behaviours. 172 The key elements underpinning this framework were consistency and transparency. These were ensured by the explicit codi? cation of stakeholder responsibilities, procedures, and penalties. In order for such a framework to be implemented effectively, Park (2004, p. 296) noted that â€Å"all stakeholders within the institution must understand and appreciate why the framework is necessary and how it protects their own interests. † A case study Park (2004, pp. 295-9) nominated a number of central pillars that lend validity and effectiveness to any such institutional framework. These included transparency, ownership by stakeholders, student engagement, academic integrity, framing the initiative to ensure compatibility with the culture of the institution, focus on prevention and deterrence, and the supportive and developmental nature of the framework. These pillars provide excellent reference points for the approach taken in one department in a college in the UAE and allow us to examine the viability and ef? cacy of such a framework for the local context. The Education Department at Abu Dhabi Women’s College (ADWC) has addressed its concerns with academic honesty in a concerted, collaborative, and multi-faceted fashion. As teacher educators, the faculty in this department are intent on producing future academics. Much like politicians, words, information, and the generation of ideas are the very foundation of our professional lives, so we regard it as essential that the â€Å"rules† of using these appropriately are disseminated, understood, and followed at all times by all of our students. To this end, we have established and adhere to a set of policies and practices at all levels that support and facilitate academic honesty. Institutional/departmental level The HCT, of which ADWC is only one of 16, institutionally mandates the prevention and sanctioning of plagiarism and related offences. Consequences of infringements of these rules are outlined in of?cial policies, Student Handbooks (see for example, HCT, 2008), contracts signed by students at the commencement of their studies, and reinforced by administrative staff and faculty at every student meeting and examination session held throughout the student’s academic career at HCT. From these guidelines, the Education Division throughout the colleges has documented standards and procedures that address academic honesty in its assessment handbooks – one that is distributed to all education students and the other, more comprehensive and speci?c, that is used by all education faculty. This shared written documentation enables best practice in assessment to be disseminated and followed, provides the underlying philosophy and approach for the division as a whole, and addresses academic honesty both directly and indirectly to better support student writing and make plagiarism a less viable or attractive option. The assessment handbooks re? ect the developmental curricular approach of the division as a whole, and so specify the type, nature, and expectations for assessments at each level to scaffold the students’ ability to produce increasingly sophisticated and original work. Ensuring that requirements are reasonable and documented minimises the students’ need to seek help through illegitimate means. These handbooks are the basis of communication within the ADWC Education Department on all matters regarding assessment and have served to ensure a common approach and understanding. Insights gained by instructors in their daily interactions with students and their submissions inevitably reveal general dif?culties facing students, which are then examined in regular formal and informal meetings to brainstorm and implement further strategies that may be useful. The ongoing concern at faculty level with issues of academic honesty is mirrored in the systematic recycling of warnings, information, and explicit instructions to students. As a department, the theft or misappropriation of ideas and words has been, and continues to be, addressed as professionally offensive and inappropriate. Initiatives suggested by Education Department faculty as well as colleagues in other departments and colleges are pursued vigorously. One recent example has been the provision of workshops by library staff on research skills and academic procedures. The plagiarism detection software, Turnitin, was originally adopted by the department as both a defence against plagiarism and a tool to help students protect themselves against accidental plagiarism. This proved to be very effective, but unfortunately access to this subsequently became unavailable. Now, suspicious text samples are input into search engines and all assignments are run through SafeAssign, a plagiarism checker in Blackboard (the online course management system). These have proved to be acceptable alternatives. As Braumoeller and Gaines (2001) found in their study, â€Å"the deterrent effects of actually checking for plagiarism are quite impressive (p. 836). † The departmental approach has included a series of mandatory workshops and masterclasses on academic writing and plagiarism for all students in slightly altered learning contexts designed to motivate, encourage participation, and focus attention. It should be noted that the relatively small size of the department (one chair, six faculty, and fewer than 80 students) makes shared understandings, uniform dissemination of information, and infraction detection much easier and more likely than in a bigger department where students are not familiar to every teacher. Course level Academic writing skills are an important component of all education courses. Referencing skills are taught explicitly in a speci? c course during the students’ ? rst semester, and then constantly reinforced and recycled throughout the programme. The education programmes at the HCT are based on re?  ective practice. This means that assignments are contextualised and require the application rather than the regurgitation of theory, so copying from previously submitted work or in any way buying or commissioning a paper cannot be so easily accomplished as theory has to ? t the student’s individual circumstances. In addition, the student’s right to submit and receive feedback on a ? rst draft of every paper (Assessment Handbook, 2009, p. 7) allows plagiarism, deliberate, or accidental; to be detected and remediated at an earlier stage before punishment becomes the only option. The feedback and scaffolding policy (pp.53-5), which outlines the form and scope of feedback to be given, draws instructor attention to both macro and micro features of the submission, so any attempt to use words or ideas from an external source should be revealed at least a week before ? nal submission. Dealing with plagiarism 173 EBS 3,3 All students submitting assignments in the Education Division are required to sign a declaration on their cover page that the work is entirely their own and all sources have been acknowledged (Assessment Handbook, 2009, p. 47). This provides a ? nal reminder that academic honesty is expected and will be monitored. Faculty responsibilities and input All faculty in the Education Department, regardless of their course allocation, consider themselves teachers of English. This is not only because we each have ESL teaching quali? cations and experience (obviously an advantage), but also because we recognise the importance of language as the vehicle for idea generation and transmission. Language is inseparable from the content area in which those ideas are conceived and manipulated. This can be a very different orientation to that of colleagues in other departments whose subject area specialisation takes precedence. Our more holistic approach means that we explicitly teach both content and the language elements with which to express that content to students who may be struggling with the unfamiliarity of both. It also means that we take our role as defenders of academic integrity very seriously and vigilantly monitor and check student output. As professional ESL teacher educators, we strive to be models of effective language use as well as successful proponents of academic scholarship, so ongoing instruction in both is a routine aspect of teaching and learning in the department. This increased student awareness of appropriate academic writing processes reduces their motivation to misappropriate text written by others. The cultural and social aspects of plagiarism are also given attention by faculty. In a society that places less value on individuality than it does on cooperation and social cohesion, it is important for students to understand that they have not only the right, but the responsibility, to turn down requests for assistance from peers. Faculty not only explain this, but also explain to students how to respond assertively with friends or relatives asking for inappropriate help. Without this, no amount of education or punishment can ever be successful. Student involvement Education students are required to be active participants in their own learning. Because all assessment processes are documented and transparent, they have the ability to question and ask for clari? cation on any aspect that they do not understand. All expectations or consequences are addressed in multiple ways, so ignorance is no defence for malpractice. Submissions of ? rst drafts are perhaps the most critical aspect for students. Although these are universally permitted and scheduled, they are never awarded a mark and are not always actually demanded, so it is up to the student to take advantage of their right to pre-submission feedback. An appropriate framework? The Education Department at ADWC values academic honesty very highly and has organized its procedures and practices accordingly. The very infrequent occurrence of plagiarism is testimony to the effectiveness of: . proactive strategizing; . clear documentation; . reasonable and appropriate expectations; 174 . . . . . awareness raising; sustained faculty vigilance and involvement; support for the development of student skills and cognitive growth; decreased student opportunity and motivation to cheat; and the pervasive sense of professional identity and responsibility that characterise departmental efforts on this issue at all levels. Dealing with plagiarism 175 The work done in this department is thus an arguably successful attempt to â€Å"devise a student plagiarism framework that best suits [our] own culture and circumstances†.